Special Education Representation Trends Vary by Language Status: Evidence of Underrepresentation in Tennessee.

Using state-level data, we report unadjusted and adjusted odds ratio of special education (SPED) trends in Tennessee from 2009 to 2019 for students in Grades 3 to 8 by three language groups: native English speakers (NES), English-proficient bilinguals (EPB), and Current English learners (Current EL). We report trends across all SPED disability categories and across five prevalent disability categories (specific learning disability, specific language impairment, intellectual disability, other health impairments, and autism). The cross-sectional analytic sample included 812,783 students from 28 districts that met the SPED risk ratio threshold set by the state. Results revealed that, compared with NES students, both EPB and Current EL students were generally less likely to receive SPED services, suggesting evidence of language status disparities in SPED representation. Furthermore, findings varied depending on whether adjustments were made to generate odds ratios, especially for higher-incidence disabilities (specific learning disability, specific language impairment, and intellectual disability). Finally, the most severe evidence of underrepresentation was in lower-incidence disabilities (other health impairments and autism). Our results underscore the need for further examination into low rates of SPED identification among learners whose first language is not English (EPB and Current EL). We discuss the contextualized research, practice, and policy implications of our findings.

Teacher Questioning to Promote Extended Language Use for Preschool Emergent Bilinguals.

PURPOSE: Emergent bilinguals (EBs) from Spanish-speaking households are a sizable and quickly growing segment of the preschool population in the United States. However, there is limited research on the provision of opportunities for EBs to engage in language-rich classroom discussion, particularly in English-dominant contexts where most EBs attend preschool. This study focused on teacher and Spanish-English EBs' language interactions in an English-dominant preschool program to better understand whether and, if so, how teachers' use of questioning strategies provided extended oral language use opportunities for Spanish-speaking EBs in their classrooms. METHOD: We adopted a sequential-explanatory mixed-methods design to examine audio recordings from whole-group instruction across seven preschool classrooms and investigate how EBs responded to teachers' conversationally responsive questioning strategies, with a specific focus on how they used Spanish as they composed extended responses. Researchers coded 31 audio recordings from 12 EB students to identify teachers' (n = 7) use of questioning strategies (closed-response, open-response, and single-word-response), as well as students' responses to questions (one-word-response or extended response) and Spanish use. RESULTS: Teachers' use of closed-response and single-word-response questions emerged as most important in supporting Spanish-English EBs' extended language use during whole-group instruction. Furthermore, the majority of student responses that included Spanish utterances were extended responses, underscoring the value of Spanish use for students to develop extended responses. CONCLUSION: Findings suggest that equitable opportunities to enter into classroom dialogue for EBs might require more explicitly scaffolded questioning strategies and might necessitate the purposeful and intentional use of Spanish.

The relationship among home language use, parental beliefs, and Spanish-speaking children's vocabulary.

This study investigated the relationship among home language use, parents' beliefs about dual language development, and Spanish-speaking children's vocabulary knowledge. Parents (n = 162) completed a questionnaire about their home language use and beliefs about dual language development, and elementary-age children (N = 190)-Kindergarten (M age = 5.71, SD = .56), second grade (M age = 7.52, SD = .31), and fourth grade (M age = 9.35, SD = .45)-completed conceptually-scored vocabulary assessments. Principal component analyses revealed that Spanish-speaking parents' beliefs about dual language development are heterogeneous. Further, parents' beliefs can be characterized differently according to their children's English proficiency designations and grade levels. Structural equation modeling analyses revealed that the Bilingual Facility parental belief factor was associated with home language use practices, which in turn were associated with children's vocabulary. However, this association only applied to limited English proficient students and their parents. These results underscore the importance of attending to Spanish-speaking parents' beliefs, as they appear to relate to home language use practices and, importantly, they also relate to their children's vocabulary achievement.

Teaching Spanish-Speaking Caregivers to Implement EMT en Español: A Small Randomized Trial.

PURPOSE: The primary purpose of this study was to examine the effects of using the Teach-Model-Coach-Review approach to teach Spanish-speaking caregivers from low-income households to implement EMT en Español with their young children with language delays. A secondary purpose was to explore the effects of the caregiver-implemented intervention on children's vocabulary. A final and more exploratory goal was to gain insight into caregivers' perceptions of the intervention. METHOD: 21 caregiver-child dyads participated in the intent-to-treat randomized control trial. Their children were 30-43 months old with language delays. Dyads were randomly assigned to receive 24 caregiver training sessions delivered at home in Spanish or a wait list control group. Pre, post and 3-month follow assessments included observational measures of caregiver-child interactions and child standardized vocabulary assessments. Caregivers completed surveys rating their perception of the intervention. RESULTS: Caregivers in the intervention group had significantly higher percentages of matched turns, expansions, and targets at post-assessment and of expansions and targets at follow-up compared to the control group. Overall, children in the intervention condition had significantly higher receptive vocabulary scores and performed better than children in the control condition on observational measure of their lexical diversity, with moderate effect sizes for most outcomes. Caregivers perceived the intervention as effective and culturally appropriate. CONCLUSIONS: Teach-Model-Coach-Review is effective in increasing Spanish-speaking caregivers' use of EMT en Español strategies with their young children with language delays. The intervention also appears to be effective for child vocabulary outcomes and acceptable to caregivers.

Comorbidity in Reading Comprehension and Word-Problem Solving Difficulties: Exploring Shared Risk Factors and Their Impact on Language Minority Learners.

The purpose of this study was threefold: to examine unique and shared risk factors of comorbidity for reading comprehension and word-problem solving difficulties, to explore whether language minority (LM) learners are at increased risk of what we refer to as higher order comorbidity (reading comprehension and word-problem solving difficulties), and to examine the profiles of at-risk LM learners compared with at-risk non-LM learners. At-risk (LM n = 70; non-LM n = 89) and not-at-risk (LM n = 44; non-LM n = 114) students were evaluated on foundational academic (word reading, calculation), behavioral (behavioral attention), cognitive (working memory, processing speed, nonverbal reasoning), and language (vocabulary, listening comprehension) measures in English. Results indicated listening comprehension was the only shared risk factor for higher order comorbidity. Furthermore, LM learners were 3 times more likely to be identified as at risk compared with non-LM learners. Finally, among at-risk learners, no differences were found on cognitive dimensions by language status, but LM learners had lower reading and listening comprehension skills than non-LM learners, with a relative advantage in behavioral attention. Results have implications for understanding higher order comorbidity and for developing methods to identify and intervene with higher order comorbidity among the growing population of LM learners.

Comparing Vocabulary Knowledge Conceptualizations Among Spanish-English Dual Language Learners in a New Destination State.

Purpose Despite the unprecedented growth of Spanish-English dual language learners (DLLs) in new destination states-where DLLs have not been historically served-empirical understanding of their language and literacy skills is scant. Drawing on scientific understandings of bilingual language acquisition, we compare monolingually scored and bilingually scored vocabulary knowledge of Spanish-English DLLs in a new destination state. Method Participants included second- and fourth-grade Spanish-English DLLs (N = 60) in a large urban school district in a new destination state. Students were considered DLLs if their parents indicated that Spanish was spoken at home to some extent. We utilized monolingually scored (Spanish-only and English-only) and bilingually scored (conceptual and total) conceptualizations of vocabulary knowledge. Descriptive analysis and Bonferroni-adjusted multiple comparisons were used to compare vocabulary knowledge by assessment approach (i.e., monolingual or bilingual), grade (i.e., second and fourth), and English proficiency status (i.e., limited English proficient and English proficient). Results Findings revealed that (a) DLLs, across grade levels and English proficiency status, demonstrated higher bilingual vocabulary scores compared to monolingual scores and stronger receptive vocabulary performance than expressive vocabulary performance and (b) DLLs' response patterns varied depending on the bilingual assessment approach used, with DLLs in limited English-proficient and English-proficient groups evidencing similar response patterns. Conclusions Bilingual scoring of vocabulary knowledge provides a more holistic understanding of elementary-aged DLLs' language skills. Results represent an important step toward shifting school-based assessment practices to incorporate comprehensive and equitable ways to conceptualize and measure elementary-aged Spanish-English DLLs' vocabulary knowledge.

Early Elementary Grade Dual Language Learners from Spanish-speaking Homes Struggling with English Reading Comprehension: The Dormant Role of Language Skills.

This study investigated contributors of English reading comprehension outcomes among predominantly U.S.-born first and third grade (N = 73) dual language learners (DLLs) from Spanish-speaking, low-income homes who attend English-only instructional schools in the Southern region of the U.S., which is experiencing historic rates of school-age DLL enrollment. We investigated the utility of various conceptualizations of vocabulary, namely English-only, Spanish-only, and specifically Spanish-English conceptually-scored receptive vocabulary, in understanding DLLs' reading comprehension. We first examined whether a gap was evident between the various conceptualizations of vocabulary and English word reading. Then, using structural equation modeling, we investigated the influence of the various conceptualizations of vocabulary on English reading comprehension, accounting for English word reading skills. Finally, we examined the potential contributions of DLLs' home language environments. Results revealed that the gap between English word reading and vocabulary varied as a function of the conceptualization of vocabulary. Further, English word reading emerged as the robust contributor to children's English reading comprehension, with no significant influence of receptive vocabulary, regardless of how it was conceptualized. Finally, and contributing to a nascent area of research, attention to DLLs' home language use practices suggests that the productive language domain (i.e., children's own home language use) may represent an important contributor to English reading comprehension among DLLs from Spanish-speaking homes. We discuss theoretical and practical implications.

Patterns of Development in Spanish-English Conceptually Scored Vocabulary Among Elementary-Age Dual Language Learners.

Purpose Elementary-age dual language learners (DLLs) from Spanish-speaking homes in the United States are often characterized as at risk for low vocabulary in both Spanish and English. This longitudinal study examined conceptually scored receptive and expressive vocabulary development among DLLs from Spanish-speaking, low-income homes and investigated patterns of language responses on the conceptually scored measures. Method DLLs in kindergarten and second grade (N = 118) attending school in the Southeast region of the United States were followed for three consecutive academic years and assessed on measures of receptive and expressive conceptually scored vocabulary. Results Individual growth modeling, using raw scores, revealed positive vocabulary growth over time, with above average performance relative to national norms. However, initial conceptually scored receptive vocabulary scores were higher than conceptually scored expressive vocabulary scores. Furthermore, DLLs' conceptually scored receptive-but not expressive-vocabulary rate of growth was more rapid compared to national norms. Finally, DLLs' patterns of language responses revealed a shift toward more English over time, but Spanish continued to be used through fourth grade. Conclusion Results contradict deficit-driven views about DLLs' vocabulary skills and underscore the utility of conceptually scored vocabulary measures to assess vocabulary development among elementary-age DLLs to more comprehensively account for the linguistic assets they bring to learning.

Spanish-speaking English learners' English language and literacy skills: The predictive role of conceptually-scored vocabulary.

Vocabulary represents a key barrier to language and literacy development for many English learners. This study examined the relationship between Spanish-speaking English learners' conceptually-scored Spanish-English vocabulary, academic English proficiency, and English reading comprehension. Second- and fourth-grade English learners (N = 62) completed standardized conceptually-scored vocabulary measures in the fall and state-administered standardized measures of academic English proficiency and English reading comprehension in the spring. Conceptually-scored vocabulary measures are designed to tap knowledge of the number of known concepts, regardless of the specific language (Spanish or English) used to label the concept. Regression analyses revealed that academic English proficiency and English reading comprehension were not predicted by the conceptually-scored measure of receptive vocabulary. However, both academic English proficiency and English reading comprehension were predicted by the conceptually-scored measure of expressive vocabulary. Importantly, the relationship between conceptually-scored expressive vocabulary and English reading comprehension remained after controlling for academic English proficiency. Results underscore the utility of measures that incorporate English learners' first and second language skills in understanding the vocabulary knowledge English learners bring to English language and literacy learning tasks.

Connections Between Reading Comprehension and Word-Problem Solving via Oral Language Comprehension: Implications for Comorbid Learning Disabilities.

In this article, we discuss the approach adopted within the Vanderbilt University Learning Disabilities Innovation Hub, which focuses on students with higher-order comorbidity: students with concurrent difficulty with reading comprehension and word-problem solving. The aim of the Hub's Research Project is to test what we refer to as the higher-order comorbidity hypothesis: that language comprehension plays a critical role in reading comprehension and word-problem solving. In the Hub's study, we test the hypothesize that language comprehension offers a coordinated approach for improving both outcomes and that this approach thus provides direction for understanding higher-order comorbidity and support for the validity of reading comprehension and word-problem solving comorbidity as a learning disabilities subtyping framework. In the first segment of this article, we describe a model that connects reading comprehension and word-problem solving development via oral language comprehension, and we provide a brief overview of prior related research on these connections. This first section provides the basis for the second segment of this article, in which we discuss the Vanderbilt Hub's innovative approach for investigating these connections. This study tests a theoretically-coordinated framework on students' performance in both high-priority domains of academic development, while exploring effects for boys versus girls and for linguistically diverse learners.

Density Dependence and Growth Rate: Evolutionary Effects on Resistance Development to Bt (Bacillus thuringiensis).

It has long been recognized that pest population dynamics can affect the durability of a pesticide, but dose remains the primary component of insect resistance management (IRM). For transgenic pesticidal traits such as Bt (Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner (Bacillales: Bacillaceae)), dose (measured as the mortality of susceptibles caused by a toxin) is a relatively fixed characteristic and often falls below the standard definition of high dose. Hence, it is important to understand how pest population dynamics modify durability and what targets they present for IRM. We used a deterministic model of a generic arthropod pest to examine how timing and strength of density dependence interacted with population growth rate and Bt mortality to affect time to resistance. As in previous studies, durability typically reached a minimum at intermediate doses. However, high population growth rates could eliminate benefits of high dose. The timing of density dependence had a more subtle effect. If density dependence operated simultaneously with Bt mortality, durability was insensitive to its strengths. However, if density dependence was driven by postselection densities, decreasing its strength could increase durability. The strength of density dependence could affect durability of both single traits and pyramids, but its influence depended on the timing of density dependence and size of the refuge. Our findings suggest the utility of a broader definition of high dose, one that incorporates population-dynamic context. That maximum growth rates and timing and strength of interactions causing density dependent mortality can all affect durability, also highlights the need for ecologically integrated approaches to IRM research.

Early indicators of later English reading comprehension outcomes among children from Spanish-speaking homes.

In this longitudinal study, we examined the relationship between primary grade (K-2) Spanish and English language- and word-based skills and later English reading comprehension (RC) outcomes (Grades 5 and 8) among children (n = 148) from immigrant, Spanish-speaking, low-income homes in English instructional contexts since Kindergarten entry. As expected, early skills, especially those in English, contributed to later RC outcomes. Most uniquely, we identified a developmental shift in the contribution of language- and word-based skills on students' RC outcomes. Specifically, word-based skills were consistently predictive of Grade 5 RC outcomes whereas the contribution of language-based skills emerged for Grade 8 RC outcomes. Finally, we also found that the relationship between early skills and later RC outcomes varied depending on students' RC levels. These results underscore the increasingly important role that early language-based skills play for later English reading comprehension outcomes and we discuss theoretical and practical implications of this work.

Parent Reports of Young Spanish-English Bilingual Children's Productive Vocabulary: A Development and Validation Study.

PURPOSE: This 2-phase study aims to extend research on parent report measures of children's productive vocabulary by investigating the development (n = 38) of the Spanish Vocabulary Extension and validity (n = 194) of the 100-item Spanish and English MacArthur-Bates Communicative Development Inventories Toddler Short Forms and Upward Extension (Fenson et al., 2000, 2007; Jackson-Maldonado, Marchman, & Fernald, 2013) and the Spanish Vocabulary Extension for use with parents from low-income homes and their 24- to 48-month-old Spanish-English bilingual children. METHOD: Study participants were drawn from Early Head Start and Head Start collaborative programs in the Northeastern United States in which English was the primary language used in the classroom. All families reported Spanish or Spanish-English as their home language(s). The MacArthur Communicative Development Inventories as well as the researcher-designed Spanish Vocabulary Extension were used as measures of children's English and Spanish productive vocabularies. RESULTS: Findings revealed the forms' concurrent and discriminant validity, on the basis of standardized measures of vocabulary, as measures of productive vocabulary for this growing bilingual population. CONCLUSION: These findings suggest that parent reports, including our researcher-designed form, represent a valid, cost-effective mechanism for vocabulary monitoring purposes in early childhood education settings.

The Impact of Inter-Kernel Movement in the Evolution of Resistance to Dual-Toxin Bt-Corn Varieties in Helicoverpa zea (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae).

Seeds or kernels on hybrid plants are primarily F(2) tissue and will segregate for heterozygous alleles present in the parental F(1) hybrids. In the case of plants expressing Bt-toxins, the F(2) tissue in the kernels will express toxins as they would segregate in any F(2) tissue. In the case of plants expressing two unlinked toxins, the kernels on a Bt plant fertilized by another Bt plant would express anywhere from 0 to 2 toxins. Larvae of corn earworm [Helicoverpa zea (Boddie)] feed on a number of kernels during development and would therefore be exposed to local habitats (kernels) that varied in their toxin expression. Three models were developed for plants expressing two Bt-toxins, one where the traits are unlinked, a second where the traits were linked and a third model assuming that maternal traits were expressed in all kernels as well as paternally inherited traits. Results suggest that increasing larval movement rates off of expressing kernels tended to increase durability while increasing movement rates off of nonexpressing kernels always decreased durability. An ideal block refuge (no pollen flow between blocks and refuges) was more durable than a seed blend because the refuge expressed no toxins, while pollen contamination from plants expressing toxins in a seed blend reduced durability. A linked-trait model in an ideal refuge model predicted the longest durability. The results suggest that using a seed-blend strategy for a kernel feeding insect on a hybrid crop could dramatically reduce durability through the loss of refuge due to extensive cross-pollination.

The gap between Spanish speakers' word reading and word knowledge: a longitudinal study.

This longitudinal study modeled growth rates, from ages 4.5 to 11, in English and Spanish oral language and word reading skills among 173 Spanish-speaking children from low-income households. Individual growth modeling was employed using scores from standardized measures of word reading, expressive vocabulary, and verbal short-term language memory. The trajectories demonstrate that students' rates of growth and overall ability in word reading were on par with national norms. In contrast, students' oral language skills started out below national norms and their rates of growth, although surpassing the national rates, were not sufficient to reach age-appropriate levels. The results underscore the need for increased and sustained attention to promoting this population's language development.

U.S. EPA regulation of plant-incorporated protectants: assessment of impacts of gene flow from pest-resistant plants.

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency licenses pesticide-expressing plants under the authority of the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA). Transgenes and their pesticidal products represent pesticides under FIFRA and are referred to as plant-incorporated protectants (PIPs). When sexually compatible wild relatives (SCWR) are sympatric with PIP crops, there is a need to assess the potential for adverse effects to man and the environment resulting from transgene introgression in accord with FIFRA requirements. Genetic compatibility, introgression, weediness of SCWR × PIP hybrids, seed dispersal, and dormancy, among other parameters, as well as effects on other species (herbivores and beneficial insects), all need to be considered as part of the risk assessment for experimental use under Section 5 or registration under Section 3 of FIFRA. EPA is currently developing data requirements and guidance toward addressing potential gene flow impacts from PIPs.

Predictors of Reading Comprehension for Struggling Readers: The Case of Spanish-speaking Language Minority Learners.

This longitudinal study examined the process of English reading comprehension at age 11 for 173 low achieving Spanish-speaking children. The influence of growth rates, from early childhood (age 4.5) to pre-adolescence (age 11), in vocabulary and word reading skills on this complex process were evaluated using structural equation modeling. Standardized measures of word reading accuracy and productive vocabulary were administered annually, in English and Spanish, and English reading comprehension measures were administered at age 11. Latent growth curve analyses revealed that English skills accounted for all unique variance in English reading comprehension outcomes. Further, expected developmental shifts in the influence of word reading and vocabulary skills over time were not shown, likely on account of students' below grade level reading comprehension achievement. This work underscores the need for theoretical models of comprehension to account for students' skill profiles and abilities.

Measuring growth in bilingual and monolingual children's english productive vocabulary development: the utility of combining parent and teacher report.

This longitudinal study examined growth in the English productive vocabularies of bilingual and monolingual children between ages 24 and 36 months and explored the utility and validity of supplementing parent reports with teacher reports to improve the estimation of children's vocabulary. Low-income, English-speaking and English/Spanish-speaking parents and Early Head Start and Head Start program teachers completed the MacArthur-Bates Communicative Development Inventory, Words and Sentences for 85 children. Results indicate faster growth rates for monolingual than for bilingual children and larger vocabularies for bilingual children who spoke mostly English than mostly Spanish at home. Parent-teacher composite reports, like parent reports, significantly related to children's directly assessed productive vocabulary at ages 30 and 36 months, but parent reports fit the model better. Implications for vocabulary assessment are discussed.

Cambios de hábitos alimentarios de los estudiantes de odontología de la Fundación Universitaria San Martín de Bogotá, Colombia / Changes of nourishing habits of the dentistry students of the University Foundation San Martin, Bogotá, Colombia

En este artículo se muestran los resultados de una investigación cuyo objetivo fue determinar y describir los hábitos alimentarios de los estudiantes de odontología de la Fundación Universitaria San Martín de Bogotá, Colombia. El tipo de estudio fue observacional de corte transversal en una población de universitarios de primero a décimo semestre. La muestra fue de 319 estudiantes, como criterio de inclusión se tomó el estar matriculados al primer semestre de 2008. Las variables involucradas en el estudio fueron, hábitos alimentarios, semestre, género, edad, número de comidas ingeridas durante el día, clase de alimentos que consume, tiempo dedicado a comer, dinero destinado para alimentarse y criterios para elegir un alimento. La edad promedio fue de 21,3±3,7 años, en donde el Índice de Masa Corporal se clasificó en bajo peso el 11% (n=35), normal el 76,8% (n=245), sobrepeso el 9,1% (n=29) y obesidad 1,3% (n=6). Se encontraron diferencias significativas entre 3 a 4 comidas diarias (prueba t, p=0.03) antes y después de ingresar a la universidad siendo actualmente un 42% (n=134) y antes un 52,7% (n=168). El motivo predominante de consumir alguna comida menos de tres veces a la semana fue la falta de tiempo. Los alimentos que más se consumen son: lácteos al desayuno en un 64,3% (n=142), carnes, huevos y leguminosas a la hora del almuerzo y cena en un 77,2% (n=186) y 58,5% (n=137) respectivamente. Se concluyó que el cambio en el estilo de vida de los estudiantes por ingresar a la universidad se refleja en los hábitos alimentarios, disminuyendo el número de comidas diarias por motivos como la falta de tiempo y dificultades económicas.